Economic development of independent Ukraine and environmental problems.

The conclusion that the worker does not receive all the value created by him, but only a minimum of means of subsistence, led Petty to consider the additional product that its owners turn to their advantage. The main form of additional product in Petty is land rent.

Rent is also a product of labor. Its value is the difference between the cost of agricultural products and the cost of production, to which Petty attributes wages and the cost of seeds. Thus, rent, as Petty admits, is the result of unpaid labor.

At the same time, Petty calls “natural and true” land rent a pure (natural) product created on the farm of a small producer. Analyzes Petty and purely land rent, in particular, gives a fairly deep, as at the time, the analysis of differential rent.

Petty’s attempt to determine the price of land also deserves attention. He correctly connects it with the profitability of land. The price of land in it is equal to a certain amount of annual rent.

However, in determining the amount of these rents Petty is not consistent. It is based on land rent for 21 years. This is the term when representatives of three generations can live at the same time: grandfather, father, grandson. Accordingly, this is the amount of annual rent that a person needs to provide for himself and his immediate descendants. At the same time, in the same work, The Treatise on Taxes and Duties, the amount of annual rents that determines the price of land, Petty makes it dependent on the “moral confidence” of the landowner in the sustainability of their income.

Interest theory. Petty calls interest a “cash rent” and sees it as something derived from rent. The amount of interest depends on the size of the land rent and the amount of money in circulation. In his work “Miscellaneous about money”, he interprets interest as an insurance premium and maintenance fee. Petty denies the need for legislative regulation of interest.

He develops the idea of ​​an inversely proportional relationship between the size of the money supply and the interest rate.

Petty’s great merit is the introduction of the principles of quantifying national wealth and national income. He was the first to single out the category of national income and make its calculations. National income, in his opinion, is created both in the sphere of material production and in the sphere of services.

The latter was categorically denied by Marxist theory, but Western economists, in particular J. Schumpeter, who was quite critical of Petty as an economist-theorist, praised his “Political Arithmetic” whose ideas related to the definition of national income and its calculations fell … the basis of developed in the 30’s – 40’s of XX century. system of national accounts.

07/10/2011

Economic development of independent Ukraine and environmental problems. Abstract

The process of social production is impossible to imagine without the participation of natural forces 123helpme.me – natural resources and natural conditions

In industry, natural factors act mainly as objects of labor, often in the form of natural raw materials, in agriculture (forestry) natural factors play a significant, and in many cases – a leading role, acting as objects and as means of labor. Agricultural production is based entirely on the use of natural resources and conditions, and its production and technical processes are both biological.

The close connection of agricultural production with nature, in the conditions of industrialization of the agrosphere, ultimately led to negative changes in the natural environment. Agriculture, which in previous times has universally contributed to the improvement of the natural environment, began to destroy it during the transition to an intensive path of development.

The agro-economic problems that have arisen are due to the fact that a significant part of the ecosystems in which agricultural production takes place has lost the ability to self-regulate due to its anthropogenic origin. At the same time, agriculture is of key importance in achieving sustainable development, as it concentrates up to 40% of the total population employed in material production and 50% of world wealth.

The high population rate ultimately determines the need for land resources. At the same time, we are witnessing a trend towards a sharp decline in agricultural land in the developed world. Thus, in the United States the area of ​​land decreased from 540 million hectares in 1960 to 492 million hectares in 1987, in Japan – from 7 to 5.6 million hectares, in France – from 39 to 35 million hectares, in Italy – from 22 to 20 million hectares.

Urban and rural settlements, schools, mines, communication lines and pipelines occupy about 12-15% of the land area. These lands have lost the ability to produce biomass, generate oxygen, and bind carbon dioxide.

Complex environmental problems arise as a result of land reclamation (drainage and irrigation). The most significant environmental consequences of land reclamation are: salinization of the soil, increased migration of chemical elements.

Great damage to the environment is caused by global air pollution, emissions from industrial enterprises and vehicles.

Of course, the sectoral characteristics of emissions of pollutants in different countries has its own. A common feature for all countries is that the main source of air pollution is industry and transport. In particular, in the United States up to 60% of total emissions come from vehicles.

The 1990s in Ukraine are characterized by researchers’ appeals to the full context of the history of ecology, tracing not only its “bright” but also shadowy aspects, and acquiring the necessary lessons from the past and experience of the Ukrainian people.

In fact, in the historical literature until the 90s there was no objective picture of the organization, planning, construction of the Dnieper cascade of hydroelectric power plants, including the construction of a number of reservoirs, their socio-ecological and economic consequences for Ukraine. Attention was focused on the very fact of construction of power plants, dams; the totality of all aspects of the process of preparation of reservoirs, resettlement of inhabitants, flooding of thousands of hectares of fertile chernozems, difficult fates and tragedies of people remained unexplored and not covered.

The idea of ​​comprehensive development of the mighty course of the Dnieper and its transformation into an energy giant arose in the 20s of XX century. Widespread among energy scientists, the idea of ​​the “Great Dnieper” generated the construction of large reservoirs in the upper and reaches of the Dnieper. One of them was the Kakhovka Reservoir.

The developed project provided for the creation of a reservoir with a total area of ​​2155 square meters. km. In total, 921.3 thousand hectares of lands of collective farms, state farms, and the state forest fund were allocated for the reservoir. More than 100 collective and state farms, more than 90 settlements, dozens of villages and two towns – Nikopol and Kamyanka-Dniprovska – were flooded in the flood zone. For thousands of people, the construction action became a real cruel social tragedy. Similar phenomena were observed during the construction and operation of Kremenchug, Dniprodzerzhynsk, Kaniv and Kyiv reservoirs.

The problem of land use has become especially acute in economic relations in Ukraine. This is due to the fact that the issue of preservation and rational use of land – the main wealth of the country – was extremely unfavorable. In recent years, much arable land has been used for industrial construction and roads, and some of them have been forgotten and overgrown with shrubs. Thus, the second stage of the Bila Tserkva Chemical Plant took the best lands in the Kyiv region, which belonged to the agricultural research station.

One of the most tragic days in the history of Ukraine was April 26, 1986. On that day, an accident occurred at the fourth power unit of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP), as a result of which a significant part of Ukraine’s land was radioactively contaminated. In total, more than 145,000 square meters have been contaminated with radionuclides since the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. km. lands.

Significant damage to land funds is caused by the implementation of ill-conceived reclamation systems. In Ukraine, in the second half of the 1980s, 240,000 hectares of land that had not been used for its intended purpose were removed from reclamation lands. The reason for this serious situation was the loss of water sources, excessive mineralization of irrigation water, difficult terrain and more. Such miscalculations result in significant losses of public funds. Moral losses are not secondary for the farmer, which negatively affects his attitude to work.

As a result of the destructive effects of erosion, increased economic exploitation, improper cultivation, violation of agronomic methods of use and negligence, arable lands of Ukraine annually lose 19-20 million tons of valuable substance – humus.

This has led to a shortage of organic matter in the soil, which is more than 4 tons per hectare of arable land.

Water is an indispensable stimulant of the existence and development of life on earth. The easy availability of water has led to it being viewed as an inexhaustible source. However, the XX century. changed people’s views on water, which in fact became a struggle for water in the right quantity and quality.

The main waterway of Ukraine is the Dnieper, the water of which is consumed by more than 2 thousand villages, 200 cities and more than 10 thousand industrial enterprises. More than 30 million people use the waters of the Dnieper. Meanwhile, from 1993 to the Dnieper basin until 1993, more than 12 billion cubic meters were dumped annually. m of wastewater, most of which are contaminated with nitrogen compounds, petroleum products, salts of heavy metals, pesticides and other harmful substances.

The ecological problem of the Dnieper concerns not only Ukraine or a separate region, but also the whole world civilization. After all, the Dnieper water pollutes the Black and Mediterranean seas, which wash the shores of three continents. It is no coincidence that the United States, Canada and other countries have offered their assistance in the “treatment of the Dnieper.”

The first attempt to rehabilitate the Dnieper was held in Poltava in the spring of 1995. All-Ukrainian conference on water supply and rehabilitation of the Dnieper. Unfortunately, this representative meeting did not fully clarify the existing environmental problems.

Of particular note are the issues of conservation, rational use and prevention of groundwater pollution, the consumption of which is constantly increasing.